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Sound Research WIKINDX

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Altman, R. (1992). Introduction: Four and a half film fallacies. In R. Altman (Ed), Sound Theory Sound Practice. (pp. 35–45). New York: Routledge.
Added by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard 23/04/2007, 21:17
Blattner, M. M., Sumikawa, D. A., & Greenberg, R. M. (1989). Earcons and icons: Their structure and common design principles. Human-computer Interaction, 4, 11–44.
Added by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard 18/01/2016, 15:54
Earcons are "nonverbal audio messages used in the user-computer interface to provide information to the user about some computer object, operation, or interaction."
A personal communication from Buxton indicates that in video arcades "scores drop when sound accompanying video games is turned off."
Paraphrasing Kerman: "Even though timbre is difficult to describe and notate precisely, it is one of the most immediate and easily recognizable characteristics of sound."* * Kerman, J. (1980). Listen. New York: Worth.
Three classes of earcons: representational semi-abstract abstract with grey areas inbetween.
Curtis, S. (1992). The sound of the early Warner Bros. cartoons. In R. Altman (Ed), Sound Theory Sound Practice. (pp. 191–203). New York: Routledge.
Added by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard Last edited by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard 13/02/2020, 12:23
Rather than use diegetic/non-diegetic, Scott uses isomorphic and iconic for music/effects in cartoons -- the former particularly in cartoons which have been animated to a pre-determined musical beat (hence difficulties with former terminology). "If isomorphic relations refer to those governed by rhythm and movement, then iconic relations pertain to analogous relationships between visual events and the timbre, volume, pitch and tone of the accompanying sound." Here, 'isomorphism' means same-shape whereas 'iconic' is used in a semiotic sense (C.S. Peirce) -- as an anology between the sound and the object.
Live-action films tend to use indexical sound where there is a direct, causal relationship between the sign and the signifier, the sound and the object. Cartoons only use iconic sound "... indexicality is impossible in a cartoon."
In terms of film [sound], Curtiss defines the term 'diegetic' as "that which is accessible to the characters of a film".
Talking of early Looney Tunes production technique: although much of the music was composed and dubbed on after the animation, a musical beat was usually decided upon before artwork began. A reversal of the usual (film production) sound/image hierarchy.
Although distinctions (certainly in practice) are clear between dialogue/music/effects in feature films, the distinction is less clear in animations (particularly early cartoons) and sometimes not there at all. This is particularly noticeable where the music is used for sound effects (he discusses this later as isomorphic and iconic sound) as played by the orchestra. Although owing a debt to the musical accompaniment of silent film, this was often a function of the difficulties in post-production mixing (loss of music quality) or of using a single microphone to record all sound simultaneously. By 1933, technological advances enabled dialogue and music (+ FX) to be recorded separately and mixed/dubbed later (hence cartoons of this period now have (clear) dialogue over the music.
Familant, M. E., & Detweiler, M. C. (1993). Iconic reference: Evolving perspectives and an organizing framework. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 39(5), 705–728.
Added by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard Last edited by: Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard 24/08/2005, 14:22
Some discussion of the use of the term 'icon' in semiotic terms and in general (computer) usage.
Contains a critique of other iconic taxonomies including Gaver and Blattner et al. (Gaver 1986; Blattner, Sumikawa, & Greenberg 1989). The suggestion is that they fail in distinguishing between sign and referent relations. The authors propose a taxonomy including: Direct reference: Signal ----> Sign Referent/Denotative Referent (identical referents). Indirect reference: Signal ---->Sign Referent ----> Denotative Referent. The referent relation (between Sign and Denotative referents) can be: Part-part: S and D share a subset of features. Part-whole: all the features of S are a subset of D. Whole-part: all the features of D are a subset of S. Identical: S and D have the same set features. Disjoint: S and D have no features in common. based on commonalities (or not) between feature sets of S and D. The most common signs are part-part and part-whole.